Sicily, due to its position, dimension and variability may be considered representative of the environmental conditions and transformations occurred in the Mediterranean area. In some cases, transformation process was destructive for some habitats, as wetlands; their reclamation caused extinction of some bird species once breeding in Sicily. The transformation, often, changed the proportion among habitats, with a reduction of wood and an increase of cerealicolous-zootechnical areas. The transformation began during the Greek and Roman period but created some open habitats, as prairie or cerealicolous-zootechnical, very rich in biodiversity. Actually in Sicily, the highest number of threatened species are linked to this habitat and are at high risk, due to process of intensification of agriculture, occurring since the II World War. In many areas of Europe species at risk are also presently tied to agrarian systems. Some species living in woodland became extinct because of wood cutting occurred in the past century. Today, due to the protection of woods, their fauna has stable populations or is increasing, because of the re-naturalization process of allochthonous woods. Species present in wetlands are currently increasing thanks to the protection of such habitats. This paper will allow to establish priorities for protection and action that may contribute to the increase of animal biodiversity in Sicily.
The current distribution and density of animal species mainly depends on the changes in climatic conditions and on the effects of human activities on habitats (
Some changes were often drastic and devastating, largely affecting expansion and/or decline processes of animal species. Such process concerned species living in habitats that were constantly reduced, as wetlands, steppic areas and woodlands, never replaced by similar newly established biotopes.
Nevertheless, in the ’800s the influence of agrosilvopastoral activities in Sicily did not cause disastrous events in wildlife, since energy sources and products for agriculture remained natural or eco-compatible. Problems began when farmers, during their legitimate freeing process from agricultural traditional forms of work, massively applied mechanization, aiming at increasing productivity (
However, as far as fauna’s decline is concerned, there is some uncertainty in assigning great and direct responsibility to agricultural activities; probably a very bad and unadvised territorial management was the real reason of the extinction and the decline of some animal populations. Mediterranean vegetation is considered resilient, maquis very easily reverts to woodland if woodcutting, browsing and burning stop (
In this paper we are going to describe recent changes in forestry, agriculture and pasture which have involved changes in the Sicilian fauna distribution, causing its decline, as well as its increase.
The Mediterranean Basin is one of the most important plant biodiversity hot-spots of the world (
Changes in the soil use were drawn from
Data on the presence and possible decline of mammals, reptiles and amphibians were drawn from literature and personal information acquired in Sicily, during the last twenty years. Distribution and population trend of bird species derive from data acquired during the achievement of the Sicilian Atlas Projects (1979-1983:
According to
Agriculture generally declined and is no longer a major part of the economics of south European countries (
The high involvement of farmers to the set-aside measure is strictly linked with the crisis of wheat production. During the application of set-aside measure (1989-94), about 25% of the entire Italian territory destined to this practice was located in Sicily. This measure has been partially replaced by the F2 measure of the EEC Reg. 2078 during 1995-98 period, interested 1344 farms for a surface of 10073 ha (
Overall percentage of the agrarian surface where RDP was applied (97366.05 ha) on the total amount of Usable Agrarian Surface (UAS - 1281654.84 ha) varied very much in the nine provinces of Sicily, with the lowest values in the Agrigento and Caltanissetta (6-7%) and the highest in the Ragusa and Siracusa provinces (16.3% and 21.2%). Altogether, regional commitment interested 11.47% of the UAS. Agri-environment regulations aimed also at improving marketing conditions and preserving farmer’s health. An important application of this objective, biological agriculture ranged from 1.3% (Agrigento) to 13.0 and 13.1 (Enna and Ragusa respectively). Regional commitment in this case involved 7% of UAS. 15341.39 ha (15.8% of RDPs) was applied within protected areas (Natural Parks, Nature Reserves, etc.); the most important areas in this case lie within Parks, which show different agriculture traditions. Nebrodi Park has developed pastures and sowable grounds in order to feed livestock and extensive cattle breeding activities, agriculture in the Madonie Park is more characterized by sowable grounds, while Etna Park holds many hazel groves, pistachio groves and vineyards.
We also highlight that some traditional forms of agriculture maintain a rich habitat mosaic, which allows the growth of arthropod diversity in the agroecosystems (
In 1847, for over thirty years, half of the Sicilian wood surface was cut, especially to provide fuel for sulphur mines (Mack
As far as point 1) is concerned, it must be considered that until the 60s’ implanting work was done manually. Due to the fact that mostly steep grounds had to be forested, the solution was terracing, which would have permitted to safeguard the existing shrub vegetation. Instead, the adoption of mechanization caused serious land losses and a significantly reduced diversity (
The main problem of wood management is fire prevention; in most cases in fact, the slow and gradual re-naturalization process, occurring in conifer afforestations is interrupted by fire. During the last century, the silviculture has also undergone some changes, and even if there were some rare cases of forest management, these changes were mainly limited to wood cleaning, fire prevention and unavoidable progressive anthropization. In many cases management of protected areas proceeded to a dogmatic conversion from coppices to high forest, without any planning. Public and private bodies managing woods in Sicily addressed forest management mainly to hydrogeological and/or naturalistic functions, and rarely to their silvicultural utilization.
Furthemore wood plantations, between forest activity and agriculture (about 35000 ha), took place in Sicily under the EEC regulation 2080/1992, but a greater part of those surfaces has been wrongly misused due to incorrect technical choices (
While it is difficult to provide quantitative data on the evolution of Sicilian agriculture landscape, it is possible to highlight the qualitative process causing this change. Likely, a first heavily modifying phase took place during Greek and Roman dominations. During that period in fact, the first important habitat changes, mainly characterized by massive deforestation, occurred. From the V to the VII century, due to a long period of population decrease and of agricultural decline, fertile land and cultivated fields were abandoned, while sheep-rearing prevailed. After the fall of the Roman Empire and the barbarian invasions, the Arabs settled in, dominating, and agriculture increased. Deserted latifundia were cultivated and new plantations (the so-called
As far as climate in the Mediterranean area is concerned, there is no evidence, since 1850, of a general wet or dry trend.
Extensive agriculture, still widespread in south-European countries and generally along countries bordering the Mediterranean, is characterized by low inputs, low productivity, absence of irrigation systems, low numbers of livestock, regular fallow practice and high vegetation heterogeneity. The introduction of innovative agriculture techniques after 1960 (
Beyond the agronomic techniques, after the post-war period spreading of cultivations changed (
In other cases, as that of the citrus groves, the stability of the cultivated area is evidenced, while other cultivations, as grapevines, are undergoing towards an extensive decline. The decrease of grapevine areas (from 221750 ha - pure and mixed orchards - on 1961 to 159800 ha - pure orchards - on 1991 to 143800 ha - pure orchards - on 2000) is caused by a more generalized problem at EU level. Traditional “small trees” system of cultivation has a low impact but is also unproductive; intensification (modern cultivation shape) on the other hand, leads to the loss of the typical traditional landscape of the coastal hills. As far as grape are concerned, the increase of cultivated areas (from 16600 ha - pure and mixed orchards - on 1961 to 26610 ha - pure orchards - on 1991, but decreasing to 17996 ha - pure orchards - on 2000) expanded mainly due to intensive cultivation of the “Italia“ variety. Cultivation techniques of ”Italia” grapes, using plastic coverings, determines a worsening of the microclimatic conditions and forces farmers to a frequent use of pesticides, therefore causing serious problems of residual toxic contents, especially in the late production. Moreover, increased irrigation needs give birth to strong impoverishment and salinisation of the water stratum.
More radical changes concern open field cultivations. In the Sicilian inland areas, characterized by a good integration between agriculture and cattle breeding, traditional cultivations, like cereals and legumes, have been strongly changed. In the first decades of the last century, some cultivated species and varieties which characterized these agricultural systems disappeared. Wheat old varieties were able to produce high amounts of straw for animals as food or bedstraw, as well as to fight against weeds; even if their productivity was stable, they were poorly productive. New varieties are more productive, shorter, and especially require high inputs of fertilizers (
Areas cultivated with legumes (
Large herds were closely linked to turnover systems and their changes caused the disappearance or decline of some bird species of cerealicolous areas. Formerly, different turnover systems were applied, namely three years with wheat-pasture-fallow fields or five years with fallow-wheat-pasture-pasture, thus providing to birds large possibilities to find undisturbed nesting sites and adjacent feeding areas too (
The areas of industrial cultivations (tobacco, fiber and seeds species) decreased from 21300 ha in 1961 to 300 in 2000, but floriculture and greenhouse products increased, reaching in the last years international markets (from 300 ha in 1961 to 10400 in 2000). Concerning the last ones, from 1981 onwards they have remarkably influenced the economical development of the entire territory of Ragusa. In this case, like for “Italia” grapes, spreading of greenhouse systems had a remarkable socio-economic influence on the territory, but in the last years it has undergone a deep economic crisis. Greenhouses also produced highly negative effects on the environment and on the health of people working there.
Finally, cereal-zootechnical landscape and that of coastal plains were subjected to the highest transformations as a result of the introduction of irrigation methods and afforestation actions. These conversions produced an intensification of agriculture; from the 1940s to the 1980s, farmers were economically encouraged towards this intensification, thus producing soil erosion. Additionally, mechanization increased remarkably, the horse-power (in thousands) increased from 223 in 1961 to 6183 in 1991 and the mechanical power hectares-1 also increased from 0.88 in 1971 to 4.3 in 1999. Among all pesticides the use of herbicides increased from 9100 kg in 1961 to 1613700 in 1999 while the use of fumigants increased from 165300 to 3875600 kg.
Due to scarce references, we are not able to understand exactly how the changes above described affected the distribution, increase or decline of small mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Conversely, references and precise information on large mammals and birds decline give us the possibility to show their trend between the half of the 1800s and that one of the 1900s (
Tab. 2 lists seven large mammals which have become extinct in Sicily, also recording some possible causes of their decreasing and extinction. Most of them were seriously affected by habitat loss and hunting between 1800 and 1850. For what concerns the Otter (
Changes and reconversions that have taken place over hundreds of years, producing a complex agrosilvopastoral landscape, characterized by seral stages, ecotones and secondary successions, favoured many species of birds of shrubby, steppic and open habitats. In the last century, further changes, mainly due to land exploitation, caused the extinction of some of them.
Only five species of Amphibians live in Sicily (
On the whole, 23 terrestrial Mammals currently live in Sicily, four of which have been recently introduced (
Hunting and poaching are local causes of species decline, and a better hunting management is warmly required. Finally, only some Rodents are noxious to agriculture; among them
Overall, 106 terrestrial birds breed regularly in Sicily, most of which are linked to grasslands (24.5%), rocky habitats (23.5%), and woodlands (32.1% -
The most important habitats for birds, together with grasslands, are rocky areas. Often birds living in this habitat also exploit grassland resources, occurring both in rocky and in grassland habitats. 25 species live in rocky areas or secondarily use this habitat; 12 have stable populations, seven are in small increase, four in small decline, two in large decline. One species is listed as Spec1, two as Spec2 and NonSpecE categories, 10 as Spec3, two species are critically endangered, two endangered, six vulnerable and six at lower risk in Italy. Total intrinsic value of birds living in rocky habitats is 26.15. Altogether, birds living in the previous two habitats represent the most important component of the Sicilian avifauna, amounting to the total intrinsic value of 50.30 (total value for all Sicilian terrestrial breeding birds is 70.25).
Few bird species (eight on the total) are more or less strictly associated with the maquis; they have stable populations, two species lie in Spec2, one in Spec3 categories and four in NonSpecE, no species are listed as threatened in Italy.
Finally, 34 species are linked to woodlands, 16 of which are stable, 16 in small increase and two in large increase; no species living in this kind of habitat has shown some decline in the last decades. Only one species is found in the Spec2, four in Spec3, 14 in NonSpecE, one species is critically endangered, two are vulnerable and three are at lower risk; the total intrinsic value of birds living in this habitat is 10.45, showing the modest presence of conservation concern species.
The disappearance of
The Sicilian region is, amongst other Mediterranean regions, certainly one of those with the highest drought risk in the next future. The precipitations have certainly decreased, especially during the autumn and winter periods, changing from an average of 750 mm (1921-60) to 650 mm (1961-90,
Protected areas and pCIS/SCZ (respectively 69520.98 and 370342.73 ha) are about 18% of total surface in Sicily (2582588.48 ha) but Regional Parks and most of the Nature Reserves are concentrated in northern parts of the region, pCIS/SCZ are scattered in the rest of the territory. Moreover, many pCIS/SCZ lie within protected areas, so the total surface of these sites actually valuable for the ecological network is much lower (194313.21 ha -
Recently,
Besides the fact that the landscape is tied to the thousand-year history of the island, which in turn by itself encourages its conservation, there are also reasons correlated to the necessity of hydrogeologic and environmental protection.
Tab. 8 reports some changes here suggested, that could contribute to reduce the impact of Sicilian agriculture activities on fauna. It clearly appears that economical reasons make the enforcement of some of them difficult (
Finally, a possible reason generally overlooked, of the decline of some species, is the road network development that today allows to reach places once isolated. After the Unity of Italy, only 2500 km joined all the Sicilian villages and towns, and even in 1940-50 most rural roads were reachable only by riding a donkey. In the last decades road building increased considerably.
We are grateful to an anonymous referee for his advices and useful suggestions. We also thank M. S. Di Bella, who improved English language.
Terrestrial sicilian breeding birds in selected habitats.
N° | Scientific name | Habitat | 79/409 | Status in Europe | Italian Red List | Trend in Italy (1970-90) | Trend in Italy (1990-2000) | Trend in Sicily (1979-1992) | Trend in Sicily (1993-2006) | Intrinsic value | Σ (intrinsic value) per habitat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. |
|
Arboreous and urban areas | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0.5 | 1.0 |
2. |
|
Arboreous and urban areas | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
3. |
|
Arboreous and urban areas | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | -1 | 1 | 0 | 0.5 | |
4. |
|
Arboreous and urban areas | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
5. |
|
Cliffs on small islands | - | SPEC2 | VU | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.15 | 2.15 |
6. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC2 | LR | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1.95 | 24.15 |
7. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC3 | LR | -1 | ? | -2 | 0 | 0.7 | |
8. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC3 | EN | -1 | -1 | -1 | 0 | 2.1 | |
9. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0.5 | |
10. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC2 | EN | -1 | 0 | -2 | -2 | 2.35 | |
11. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC3 | LR | -1 | -1 | -2 | -2 | 1.7 | |
12. | Calandrella brachydactyla | Grasslands | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | -1 | -1 | -1 | 1.5 | |
13. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | |
14. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | -1 | -2 | 0 | 0.5 | |
15. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | -1 | 0 | -1 | 0.5 | |
16. |
|
Grasslands | - | - | - | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
17. |
|
Grasslands | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
18. |
|
Grasslands | - | - | - | 0 | ? | 0 | 0 | 0.25 | |
19. |
|
Grasslands | - | SPEC2 | - | -1 | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0.75 | |
20. |
|
Grasslands and arboreous areas | - | SPEC2 | LR | -1 | -1 | -1 | 0 | 0.95 | |
21. |
|
Grasslands and humid areas | - | SPEC3 | EN | 0 | 0 | -1 | 0 | 2.1 | |
22. |
|
Grasslands and humid areas | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | -1 | 0 | |
23. |
|
Grasslands and urban areas | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.5 | |
24. |
|
Grasslands and urban areas | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.5 | |
25. |
|
Grasslands and urban areas | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.25 | |
26. |
|
Grasslands and wood edges | - | SPEC2 | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.75 | |
27. |
|
Grasslands and woods | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | |
28. |
|
Grasslands, with scattered trees | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | |
29. |
|
Grasslands, with scattered trees | - | SPEC2 | LR | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | 0.95 | |
30. |
|
Grasslands, with scattered shrubs | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | 0.5 | |
31. |
|
Grasslands, with scattered trees | - | SPEC2 | EN | -1 | -1 | -1 | -2 | 2.35 | |
32. |
|
Humid areas | - | NonSPECE | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.25 | 0.25 |
33. |
|
Humid areas | - | - | - | -1 | -1 | -2 | -1 | 0 | |
34. |
|
Maquis | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.25 | 4.0 |
35. |
|
Maquis | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.25 | |
36. |
|
Maquis | - | SPEC2 | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.75 | |
37. |
|
Maquis and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.25 | |
38. |
|
Maquis and Grasslands | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
39. |
|
Maquis and Grasslands | - | SPEC2 | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.75 | |
40. |
|
Maquis and Grasslands | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0.25 | |
41. |
|
Maquis and rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | |
42. |
|
Rivers and humid areas | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
43. |
|
Rivers and urban areas | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
44. |
|
Rivers and urban areas | - | - | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
45. |
|
Rivers, humid areas, maquis | - | - | - | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
46. |
|
Rocky and urban areas | - | - | LR | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.2 | 26.15 |
47. |
|
Rocky and urban areas | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
48. |
|
Rocky and urban areas | - | NonSPECE | - | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.25 | |
49. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC2 | EN | -1 | 0 | -2 | -2 | 2.35 | |
50. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | VU | 0 | 0 | 0 | -1 | 1.9 | |
51. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | CR | -2 | -2 | -2 | -1 | 2.3 | |
52. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | VU | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1.9 | |
53. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | CR | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | 2.3 | |
54. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0.5 | |
55. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | EN | -1 | -1 | 0 | 0 | 2.1 | |
56. |
|
Rocky areas | - | - | VU | -1 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 1.9 | |
57. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC2 | VU | -1 | -1 | -1 |
-2 |
2.15 | |
58. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | LR | -1 | -1 | 0 | 1 | 1.7 | |
59. |
|
Rocky areas | - | - | LR | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | |
60. |
|
Rocky areas | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | -1 | 0 | 0 | |
61. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | |
62. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | LR | -1 | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0.7 | |
63. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | |
64. |
|
Rocky areas | - | SPEC3 | VU | -2 | 0 | -2 | -1 | 1.9 | |
65. |
|
Rocky areas | - | - | LR | 0 | 0 | 0 | -1 | 0.2 | |
66. |
|
Rocky areas | - | - | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
67. |
|
Rocky areas and grasslands | - | SPEC1 | LR | -1 | 2 | -1 | 0 | 2.20 | |
68. |
|
Rocky areas and Grasslands | - | - | VU | No data | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.4 | |
69. |
|
Rocky areas and woods | - | - | - | -1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
70. |
|
Rocky areas and woods | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
71. |
|
Scattered trees on hills | - | SPEC3 | EN | -1 | 0 | 0* | 0 | 2.1 | 2.1 |
72. |
|
Urban and cultivated areas | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
73. |
|
Woods and urban areas | - | NonSPECE | - | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0.25 | 10.45 |
74. |
|
Woods | - | - | - | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1.0 | |
75. |
|
Woods | - | - | VU | -1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0.4 | |
76. |
|
Woods | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
77. |
|
Woods | - | - | LR | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.2 | |
78. |
|
Woods | - | NonSPECE | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.25 | |
79. |
|
Woods | - | SPEC2 | LR | -1 | -1 | 0 | 0 | 1.95 | |
80. |
|
Woods | - | SPEC3 | - | -1 | -1 | 1 | 0 | 0.5 | |
81. |
|
Woods | - | - | - | -1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | |
82. |
|
Woods | - | NonSPECE | - | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.25 | |
83. |
|
Woods | - | NonSPECE | - | -1 | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0.25 | |
84. |
|
Woods | - | - | LR | 0 | 0 | 0 |
0 |
0.2 | |
85. |
|
Woods | - | SPEC3 | CR | 0 | ? | 0 |
0 |
1.3 | |
86. |
|
Woods | - | - | - | 0 | ? | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
87. |
|
Woods | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.25 | |
88. |
|
Woods | - | - | - | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
89. |
|
Woods | - | - | - | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
90. |
|
Woods | - | NonSPECE | VU | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.65 | |
91. |
|
Woods | - | - | - | No data | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
92. |
|
Woods and arboreous areas | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | ? | 1 | 1 | 0.5 | |
93. |
|
Woods and arboreous areas | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
94. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |
95. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.25 | |
96. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0.25 | |
97. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.25 | |
98. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
99. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.25 | |
100. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | SPEC3 | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.5 | |
101. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
102. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0.25 | |
103. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | - | - | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | |
104. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | -1 | 0.25 | |
105. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0.25 | |
106. |
|
Woods and gardens | - | NonSPECE | - | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0.25 |
Changes occurred in the sicilian agroecosystems before and after 1960 (greenhouses, horticulture and industrial culture are excluded).
Agroecosystems | Traditional systems before 1950-1960 | Modern systems after 1960 |
---|---|---|
Cerealicolous | Crop rotation with legumes | Monoculture |
Manuring and scarce supplement with chemical fertilizer | Chemical fertilization | |
Manual tillage or assisted by farm animals | Mechanical tillage, chemical weedkiller | |
Old varieties | New varieties | |
Traditional system of seeding | Seed tanning | |
Citrus, Olive plantations, Vineyards, etc. | Manuring | Chemical fertilization |
Manual tillage or assisted by farm animals | Mechanical tillage, chemical weedkiller | |
Pruning | Changes of tree growing shape and new pruning techniques | |
Low control of disease with pesticides | Control of adversities with pesticides | |
Old and authochtonous cultivars | New varieties and species | |
Traditional system of irrigation | Introduction of new irrigation systems | |
Almond, Hazel, Carob groves (orchard to be neglected) | Manuring, green manure | Scarce use of chemical fertilizers |
Manual tillage or assisted by farm animals | Mechanical tillage | |
Pruning | Pruning | |
Table wine | - | Chemical fertilizers |
Mechanical tillage | ||
Massive control of adversities with pesticides and weed killers | ||
Mulching | ||
New varieties | ||
Pastoral | Transumance | Food integration |
Old races | New races |
Large mammals become extinct in Sicily. Some Mammals (
Species | Extinction year | Causes | References |
---|---|---|---|
|
after 1975 | Human persecution; genetic drift? | La Mantia & Massa (in press) |
|
about 1935 | Hunting, human persecution |
|
|
before 1850? | Habitat loss, human interference, genetic drift? |
|
|
about 1870 | Hunting, human interference, habitat loss |
|
|
before 1800 | Hunting, human interference, habitat loss |
|
|
1845 | Hunting, human interference, habitat loss |
|
|
about 1870 | Hunting, human interference |
|
Bird species become extinct in Sicily.
Species | Extinction year | Causes | References |
---|---|---|---|
|
|||
|
after 1943 | Drainage of wetlands |
|
|
before 1869 | Drainage of wetlands | Zuccarello |
|
after 1916 | Very small population, genetic drift |
|
|
about 1840 | Hunting, habitat transformation, etc. | |
|
after 1950 | Drainage of wetlands, hunting |
|
|
about 1920 | Hunting, habitat transformation, land reclamation | |
|
before 1900; probably wandering from Italy, not breeding in Sicily | Genetic drift? Wood cutting? | |
|
about 1930 | Genetic drift? Wood cutting? | |
|
about 1930 | Genetic drift? Wood cutting? |
|
|
between 1930 and 1950 | Drainage of wetlands | |
|
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about 1968 | Human interference to breeding sites. Genetic drift? |
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1965 | Hunting, habitat transformation, changes of pastoral and agriculture activities |
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about 1970 | Hunting, agriculture changes |
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last confirmed breeding: 1935; last observation: 1978 | Genetic drift? Hunting? Wood cutting? |
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Reptiles and Amphibians living in Sicily and their status (sources:
Species | Status | Habitat | Factors affecting eventual decline |
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Uncommon and decreasing in the orchards | Small rivers, ponds and water basins, often in agroecosystems | Removal and conversion from old irrigation systems to modern ones |
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Common and widespread, decreasing in the orchards | Ponds, reservoirs, rivers | Herbicides |
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Very common and widespread | Ponds, reservoirs, water basins | - |
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Scarce and decreasing, up to 1700 m | Rivers with reeds, citrus groves and gardens next to the water | Pollution, habitat loss and alteration, conversion from old irrigation systems to modern ones |
Common and widespread, up to 1700 m, decreasing in the orchards | Rivers, ponds, reservoirs, water basins, etc. | Pollution, conversion from old irrigation systems to modern ones | |
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Common, locally decreasing, up to 1500 m | Rivers, ponds, reservoirs, water basins, etc. | Pollution, habitat loss and alteration, introduction of competitive exotic species |
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Rare and local, decreasing | Wood clearings and edges, maquis | Collecting, fires, habitat loss |
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Common and widespread, up to 600 m | Rocky habitats, woods, rural andurban areas | - |
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Common and widespread, up to 1250 m | Rocky habitats, woods, rural and urban areas | - |
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Common, but moderately decreasing, up to 1850 m | Maquis, wood edges, areas close to water, hedgerows | Habitat alteration |
Very common | In Italy only on Pelagian Is. | - | |
Uncommon, some populations are endangered | Only Aeolian Is. | Habitat alteration | |
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Common and widespread, up to 2150 m | Garrigues, pastures, urban and cultivated areas, gardens, wood edges | - |
Locally common, lacking in NE Sicily, slightly decreasing, up to 1600 m | Garrigues, pastures, cultivated areas, gardens, wood edges | Possible local competition with |
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Scarce | Only on Scoglio dei Conigli (Lampedusa Is.) | - |
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Common, up to 1840 m | Rural habitats, grassy and sunny slopes, often next to the water | - |
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Common, slightly decreasing, up to 1500 m | Xeric, stony and rural habitats, pastures | Agriculture mechanization |
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Uncommon | Only on Pantelleria Is. | - |
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Common and widespread, up to 1840 m | Garrigues, pastures, urban and cultivated areas, gardens, wood edges | - |
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Uncommon and local between 800 and 1700 m | Wood edges, stony habitats | - |
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Uncommon and local, up to 1450 m | Garrigues, pastures, cultivated areas, wood edges | - |
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Scarce and local, up to c. 800 m | Xeric and sandy habitats, pastures | Habitat loss |
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Uncommon | Only on Lampedusa Is. | - |
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Uncommon | Only on Lampedusa Is. | - |
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Common and widespread, up to 1770 m | Rivers, reservoirs, ponds, rocky habitats | - |
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Uncommon, up to 1850 m | Stony and rocky habitats, clearings and wood edges | - |
Sicilian terrestrial Mammals and their status in Sicily (excluded Chiroptera and introduced or reintroduced species:
Species | Status | Habitat | Factors affecting eventual decline |
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Common and widespread | Agroecosystems, hedgerows, woods, etc. | Locally high mortality along busy roads | |
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Common below 1000 m | Cerealicolous areas, agroecosystems, garrigues, etc. | - |
Common and widespreadup to 1600 m | Agroecosystems, hedgerows, woods, etc. | Tillage and pesticides in agroecosystems | |
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Common | Only on Pantelleria Is. | - |
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Common and widespread up to 1800 m | Agroecosystems, hedgerows, woods, etc. | Hunting, virus spread, due also to introduction of domestic individuals |
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Uncommon, locally scarce and generally declining, up to 1800 m; set-aside has favoured local increasing | Agroecosystems, hedgerows, woods, etc. | Hunting, tillage, passage from extensive to intensive agriculture |
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Scarce, up to 1600 m | Agroecosystems, olive groves, hedgerows, woods, etc. | Cutting of old olives, fires, competition with rats in rural areas |
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Scarce and local, up to 1500 m | Woods | Fires, cutting of chestnut woods and abandonment of hazel groves, poaching |
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Scarce and local between 800 and 1600 m | Woods | Fires, cutting of chestnut woods and abandonment of hazel groves, poaching in particular of undergrowth |
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Very common and widespread, up to 1800 m | Agroecosystems, wood clearings and edges | - |
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Very common and widespread, up to 1600 m | Rural areas, villages, towns, woods | - |
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Very common and widespread, up to 1200 m | Houses sewage systems, rivers next to towns and villages, etc. | - |
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Very common and widespread, up to 1000 m | Rural areas, houses, villages, towns, etc. | - |
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Common and widespread, up to 1800 m | Agroecosystems, groves, woods, etc. | - |
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Local and uncommon up to 1600 m | Maquis, garrigues, rocky areas, woods | Poaching, habitat loss |
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Common and widespread, up to 2000 m | Agroecosystems, woods, urban edges and gardens | - |
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Uncommon, locally increasing, up to 1800 m | Woods and cultivated areas | Poaching, dead individuals frequently found along busy roads |
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Common and widespread, up to 2000 m but in orchard declining probably caused by directly or indirectly pollution | Agroecosystems, hedgerows, woods, urban gardens, etc. | High mortality observed along busy roads |
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Local, up to 1800 m | Woods and rocky areas | Poaching, habitat loss |
Some suggested changes for Sicilian afforestation and wood managing in order to reduce the impact to fauna.
Forest | Proposed changes |
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Afforestation | Only autochthonous species; Plants coming from “plants mothers” as much close as possible; Plantation sparse with clearing; Hole planting; Preferably ex cultivation land or degraded area |
Allochthonous wood | Forest assessment planning; Renaturation of unproductive wood; Sustainable forest harvesting |
Autochthonous wood | Forest assessment planning; Safeguards of the traditional techniques of use (conservation of coppices); Planning of conversion of coppices to high forest; Sustainable forest harvesting |
Some suggested changes for Sicilian agroecosystems management to reduce the impact on fauna (greenhouses and horticulture are excluded).
Agroecosystems | Proposed changes |
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Cerealicolous | Catch crops, intercropping; Rationalization of fertilization and tillage; Mechanical control of weeds (false sowing); Seed tanning with safe products |
Citrus, Olive plantations, Vineyards, etc. | Rationalization of fertilization and mechanization; Autumn-winter grassy; Green manure; Mechanical control of weeds; Biological and integrated control |
Almond, Hazel, Carob groves (arboreal cultures to be neglected) | Rationalization of fertilization; Autumn-winter grassy; Green manure; Mechanical control of weeds |
Table wine | Rationalization of fertilization; Autumn-winter grassy; Biological and integrated control with ecocompatible products |
Pastoral | Food diversification; Reduction of stock breeding |